Social Development 

Gender Manual: A Practical Guide for Development Policy Makers and Practitioners

Helen Derbyshire
Social Development Division
DFID

April 2002

About the author

Helen Derbyshire is an independent Gender and Social Development Consultant. For the past ten years she has worked with DFID, UK-based international NGOs and their government and civil society partner organisations facilitating the development of gender policies and strategies, designing and providing tailored gender training courses, and evaluating the implementation and impact of policies and projects designed to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women.

Contents

Introduction

How to use the manual

Section 1:

This section contains narrative background information on background ideas and concepts.

Refer to this section if: 

• you want to clarify DFID’s rationale for and commitment to gender equality 
• you want to understand why gender mainstreaming has emerged as an internationally agreed strategy to promote gender equality
you are working in the context of national policy frameworks and want to check emerging lessons.

Contents

• Gender equality as a goal;
• What does gender equality mean?
• Gender mainstreaming as a strategy;
• Outline history of women, gender and development;
• Emerging lessons on mainstreaming gender in national policy frameworks.

Section 2:

This section contains a one page summary of mainstreaming gender in a nutshell;

Refer to this section if: 

• you want a quick summary of gender mainstreaming for your own reference

Contents

• The four key steps of gender mainstreaming;
• Who is responsible for what;
• When to call in specialist help.

Section 3:

This section contains practical tools and guidance on the four key steps of gender mainstreaming:

• you want guidance on particular aspects and processes of gender mainstreaming.
• detailed sector-specific information and case studies are available through the GEM website.

Contents

• Practical tools and guidelines

Step 1:  Sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information

• What you need to know, and why;
• Sex disaggregated data;
• Outline gender analytical framework: beneficiary groups;
• Outline gender analytical framework: development organisations;
• Gender budgets.

Step 2:  Influencing the development agenda

• Gender-sensitive stakeholder analysis;
• Women in decision-making: community level;
• Women in decision-making, National policy processes;
• Working in networks and coalitions;
• Advocacy and lobbying.

Step 3:    Action to promote gender equality

• What does gender equality mean?
• Outline gender equality action framework;
• Gender in logical frameworks;
• Gender-sensitive indicators.

Step 4:

• Organisational capacity building and change;
• "Policy evaporation";
• Organisational capacity building framework;
• Gender focal staff;
• Gender policies;
• Gender training;
• Management support.

Section 3:

Information and content of the GEM website

Introduction

Purpose and audience

The aim of UK international development policy is to contribute to the elimination of world poverty. A key component of the strategy to achieve this is to promote equality for women, particularly for those who make up the majority of the billion or more people living in abject poverty.

Promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women is part of the responsibility of all staff. It is integral to work in all sectors and regions, and at all levels from national policy to community level projects.

This gender manual is designed to help non-gender specialists in recognising and addressing gender issues in their work. The intention is to demystify gender, make the concept and practice of gender "mainstreaming" accessible to a wide audience, and clarify when to call in specialist help. Whilst designed for DFID staff and partner organisations, the manual should provide useful information and guidance for staff from any government or civil society organisation striving to recognise and address gender issues in their work. The manual is intended to be enabling rather than prescriptive. It focuses on the processes of gender mainstreaming which are similar in all sectoral and regional contexts, and also similar, in some instances, to other processes of social development and organisational change. 

The manual arises from (and is intended to complement) the DFID GEM website. This was developed by a team of more than twenty experienced gender consultants in consultation with sector advisory staff and provides detailed and practical sector-specific information, case studies and references. The GEM website is managed by BRIDGE at the Institute of Development Studies. 

This gender manual is being distributed as a pilot exercise. We may supplement the manual with sector-specific guides and would value feedback to tailor both the manual and the sector-specific guides to needs. Please send comments either on the enclosed evaluation questionnaire, or by email to: S-Zeitlyn@dfid.gov.uk

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Section 1 Background Ideas and Concepts

Gender equality as a goal

The aim of UK international development policy is to contribute to the elimination of world poverty. The empowerment of women and the promotion of gender equality is one of the eight internationally agreed development goals designed to achieve this.

Gender equality is given such high priority because:

• gender equality is essential to poverty elimination. There is a growing and compelling body of evidence which shows that women not only bear the brunt of poverty but that women’s empowerment is a central precondition for its elimination. Poverty elimination can only be achieved by addressing the disproportionate burden of poverty, lack of access to education and health services, and lack of productive opportunities borne by women
• gender equality is integral to a rights-based approach to development. Human rights, defined and upheld by the international community, are universal, and based on the equal worth and dignity of all women and men. Internationally agreed human rights include standards of health, education and the right to a secure livelihood, as well as civil, political and legal rights.
  

Everywhere there are significant ways in which men’s and women’s responsibilities, opportunities and influence are unequal, although the nature and extent of inequality varies from society to society. Whilst there are instances where men are disadvantaged in comparison to women, generally women and girls have fewer opportunities, lower status and less power and influence than men and boys. Millions of women around the world:

• have to work harder than men to secure their livelihoods
• have less control over income and assets
• have a smaller share of opportunities for human development
• are subject to violence and intimidation
• have a subordinate social position
• are poorly represented in policy- and decision-making.
• Gender inequality represents a huge loss of human potential, with costs for men as well as for women.

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What does gender equality mean?

Gender equality does not simply or necessarily mean equal numbers of men and women or boys and girls in all activities, nor does it necessarily mean treating men and women or boys and girls exactly the same.

It signifies an aspiration to work towards a society in which neither women nor men suffer from poverty in its many forms, and in which women and men are able to live equally fulfilling lives. It means recognising that men and women often have different needs and priorities, face different constraints, have different aspirations and contribute to development in different ways.

Gender equality and women’s empowerment are inextricably linked. Women will only win equality when they are able to act on their own behalf, with a strong voice to ensure their views are heard and taken into account. This means recognising the right of women to define the objectives of development for themselves.

An important message is that gender equality and the empowerment of women is achievable. Great progress has been made in the 20th century. Women enjoy greater freedom and more power than ever before. Progress has been greatest where there has been strong political will; where changes in laws, regulations and policies have been followed through with real action; where resources have been devoted to the explicit goal of reducing gender discrimination. Progress is not dependent on the income level of the society: some developing countries outperform much richer countries in the opportunities they afford women.

Another important message is that achieving gender equality is not a one-off goal. Progress can all too easily be eroded. Gender equality needs to be constantly promoted and actively sustained.

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Gender mainstreaming as a strategy

In 1995, at the Fourth UN International Conference on Women held in Beijing, "gender mainstreaming" was established as the internationally agreed strategy for governments and development organisations to promote gender equality. This was in response to consistent lessons that have emerged from at least twenty years of experience of addressing women’s needs in development work. To understand what "gender mainstreaming" means and why it is important, it helps to understand the journey that has been travelled to reach this point.

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Outline history of women, gender and development

The "welfare" approach

Until the early 1970s, development policies addressed the needs of poor women’s entirely in the context of their role as wives and mothers. Known now as the "welfare" approach, the focus was on mother and child health, childcare and nutrition. It was assumed that the benefits of macro economic strategies oriented towards modernisation and growth would trickle down to the poor, and that poor women would benefit as the economic position of their husbands improved.

Analytical critique

In 1970, Esther Boserup, a Danish economist, systematically challenged these assumptions. In her book "Women’s Role in Economic Development", she concluded that far from women benefiting as their husband’s situation improved, women were increasingly losing status. Women were becoming associated with the backward and the traditional, whilst men (with the assistance of economic development projects, such as the introduction of cash crops and new agricultural technologies) were increasingly associated with the modern and the progressive.

The "Women in Development" (WID) approach

In the context of a groundswell of research and campaigning on the situation of women, and the rise of the women’s movement in USA and Europe in particular, 1975 was declared the UN International Year for Women, and 1976–1985 the UN International Women’s Decade. This attracted high level attention to women, led to the establishment of national women’s organisations and ministries in many countries, and helped to institutionalise what became known as Women in Development (WID) policies in governments, donor agencies and NGOs.

Responding to the concern that women had been left out of the processes of economic development, the aim of WID was to integrate women into economic development. This resulted in newly established WID officers, units and ministries developing women’s projects, which were still separate to mainstream development but focusing on women’s productive role. Typically, this resulted in women’s income generation projects.

Analytical critique

The "gender" approach originated in the early 1980s in academic criticism of WID. Gender analysts, drawing on marxist analysis and feminist activism felt that WID was not in any way an appropriate solution to the problems faced by women. Not only was WID failing in its own terms (most women’s income generation projects failed to generate significant income), it left the mainstream of development untouched, commanded marginal budgets, treated women identically, and failed to look systematically at why and how women were disadvantaged.

Gender analysts made the crucial distinction between "sex" and "gender". Sex refers to universal biological differences between women and men, and gender to male and female behavioural norms (which are learnt, are different in different societies and change over the course of time). In this context, gender analysts examine why women in different cultures are systematically assigned inferior or secondary roles. They seek to recognise the ways in which gender norms (what men and women do, what they have, what they think etc.) are affected by, and reflected in, processes of development and change. Drawing on feminist activism, gender analysts explicitly see women as agents of change and stress the need for women to organise to bring about change.

Through most of the 1980s, gender analysis was regarded by gender analysts themselves as demanding a degree of commitment to change in structures of power that was unlikely to be found in either national or international development agencies.

The gender "efficiency" and gender "empowerment" approaches

By the mid 1990s, however, a "gender" approach had replaced WID in most governments, donor organisations and NGOs. There remains a lot of confusion amongst practitioners themselves about the meaning of "gender" in practice, and many "gender" units in fact continue to operate a largely WID approach. However, those consciously adopting a gender approach adapted (and in some people’s view distorted) the ideas of academic gender analysts to address particular needs. Two contrasting approaches dominated from the late 1980s.

Advocates working within mainstream development organisations drew on gender analysis to bring concerns with women and gender difference into the "mainstream" of development for the first time. Known now as the gender "efficiency" approach, their strategy was to argue, in the overall development context of structural adjustment policies, that gender analysis makes good economic sense. That argued that understanding men’s and women’s roles and responsibilities as part of the planning of all development interventions helps targeting, improves project effectiveness and ensures that women, as well as men, can play their part in national development.
Those working within community level women’s projects drew on what gender analysts (and the women’s movement) had to say about women as agents of change. In the overall context of a rise in participatory approaches to development, the gender "empowerment" approach meant working with women at the community level building organisational skills and self-esteem through participation in determining needs and managing change.

Analytical critique

Evaluations highlighted both strengths and limitations in "efficiency" and "empowerment" approaches. The "efficiency" approach succeeded to a degree in bringing a concern with women and gender into the mainstream of development, but at the expense of focusing on what women could do for development, rather than on what development could do for women. The empowerment approach opened up space for women to determine their own needs, but "empowerment" was too often misinterpreted as an end rather than a means. This could result in projects delivering empowerment to poor women, with development practitioners apparently knowing better than poor women themselves what their true needs were.

Evaluations of the implementation of gender policies in mainstream development organisations were revealing the common problem of "policy evaporation", as implementation and impact failed to reflect policy commitments. Increasing research on the gendered nature of development organisations themselves demonstrated that development organisations are part of the problem of gender inequality they are supposedly committed to addressing. Gender inequalities in wider society affect who is qualified and available to work; patterns of staffing; training, promotion and career development opportunities and many aspects of organisational culture.

The "mainstreaming gender equality" approach

The term "gender mainstreaming" came into widespread use with the adoption of the Beijing Platform for Action (PfA) at the 1995 UN International Conference on Women. It represents an attempt by gender advocates to build on the successes of the past and address some of the challenges. It attempts to combine the strengths of the efficiency and empowerment approaches within the context of mainstream development.

Mainstreaming gender equality is a commitment to ensure that women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences are integral to the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all legislation, policies and programmes so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality. Gender mainstreaming is integral to all development decisions and interventions; it concerns the staffing, procedures and culture of development organisations as well as their programmes; and it forms part of the responsibility of all staff.

Gender mainstreaming does not preclude women-only projects. It shifts their focus from women as a target group, to gender equality as a goal. It supports women-only (or men-only) projects designed as strategic interventions to address aspects of gender inequality and promote greater equality.

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Emerging lessons on mainstreaming gender in national policy frameworks

In the late 1990s and new millennium, the focus of donor-supported development has shifted to a significant degree away from discrete project interventions onto processes concerned with the development and implementation of national policy frameworks for poverty elimination. Evaluation material is beginning to emerge examining experiences of mainstreaming gender in the context of national policy frameworks such as PRSPs (Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers) and SWAPs (Sector Wide Approaches).

Evaluation findings

National policy frameworks potentially provide the ideal context for gender mainstreaming, concerned as they are with mainstream policy development and effectiveness. They provide a context whereby:

• gender analytical information and sex disaggregated data on men’s and women’s concerns and experiences can inform national or sector-wide policy and planning processes
• the importance of gender-aware consultation processes, involving civil society and other stakeholders, is specifically acknowledged
• national policy commitments to gender equality should be backed up with budgets, effective processes of monitoring, and capacity-building
• the long-term time frame of PRSPs and SWAPS acknowledges the complex processes of change involved.

However, the potential of national policy frameworks for promoting effective gender mainstreaming is greater than achievements to date. The following problems have been highlighted in all currently available evaluations:

• incorporation of gender issues into PRSPs has, thus far, been minimal. Whilst a few have addressed gender issues in specific sectors (usually health and education) with reasonable depth, the overall coverage is weak and little consistent attention has been paid to gender dimensions of poverty reduction
• insufficient documentation of gender disparities and gender-disaggregated analysis of poverty is a barrier to recognising and addressing gender issues effectively
• few PRSPs and I-PRSPs (Interim Poverty Strategy Papers) include specific plans for gender-sensitive consultation processes
• action to promote gender equality, when included, is too often vague, and not backed up with appropriate monitoring indicators
• the donor voice in advocating gender equality goals is inconsistent (to the frustration of partner organisations and staff concerned with equalities issues)
• commitments to gender equality at the national level are subject to "policy evaporation"
• equity outcomes are not achieved unless they are explicitly stated and operationalised through well thought out procedures.

Emerging lessons on good practice

Good practice lessons echo what is already well documented from experiences of mainstreaming gender in projects. These are:

• policy development, as well as monitoring, needs to be informed by context-specific sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information
• the support of senior officials for gender equality objectives is key to effective progress
• sufficient resources need to be allocated for capacity-building in policy-making, management and implementation agencies
• there should be a focus on measuring equitable outcomes to create a framework for gender-sensitive implementation.

Findings particular to mainstreaming gender in national policy frameworks relate to the processes of policy development and monitoring:

• support needs to be directed towards champions of change within the national institutions involved in the national policy framework process. Pressure for change needs to come from advocates within government agencies, civil society organisations, political representatives, and donor organisations
• capacity needs to be built within governments concerning participatory approaches of consulting effectively with women as well as men
• capacity needs to be built within civil society women’s organisations, and organisations campaigning for gender equality, to enable them to engage effectively with national policy processes of analysis and lobbying
• there needs to be strengthened co-ordination between government, donor and NGO staff on commitments to gender equality
• gender advocates need to consider establishing standards to measure the quality of women’s participation in consultation processes
• a strong general policy on gender equality is required at national level. National policy frameworks cannot create the conditions to drive change on their own. International agreements on gender equality help create the conditions for this.

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Section 2

The four key steps of gender mainstreaming

Step 1: Sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information

Gender analytical research and sex disaggregated statistical data (about "beneficiary" groups and about management and implementation organisations) is essential to effective gender mainstreaming. Information systems should routinely be disaggregated by sex; gender analysis (an examination of women’s as well as men’s experiences, needs and priorities) should routinely be part of social and institutional appraisal and monitoring processes; and gender analytical studies should be commissioned to examine particular issues and address information gaps. This information is necessary to identify gender difference and inequality; to make the case for taking gender issues seriously; to design policies and plans that meet women’s and men’s needs; to monitor the differential impact of policy, project and budget commitments on women and men.

Step 2: Women as well as men influencing the development agenda

Women will only win equality when they are able to act on their own behalf, with a strong voice to ensure their views are heard and taken into account. This means promoting the involvement of women as well as men in decision-making at all levels, and ensuring that men and women committed to the promotion of gender equality are influencing decision-making. "Gender advocates" within government, civil society and donor organisations are most effective when they work in collaboration, identifying and developing strategic "entry points" for the promotion of gender equality.

Step 3: Context-specific action to promote gender equality

Gender mainstreaming is a strategy to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women. Action to promote greater equality of influence, opportunity and benefit should be devised on the basis of context-specific sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information and a clear understanding of women’s and men’s priorities. Actions need to be explicitly included in policy and project documents and frameworks, backed up with staff and budgets, and monitored and reviewed through appropriate indicators of change.

Step 4: Organisational capacity building and change

Gender mainstreaming, as an organisational strategy to promote gender equality, depends on the skills, knowledge and commitment of the staff involved in management and implementation. "Evaporation" of policy commitments to gender equality is widespread. Developing appropriate understanding, commitment and capacity, as well as addressing issues of gender inequality within development organisations themselves, is a long-term process of organisational change. Appropriate capacity-building activities need to be explicitly included in policy and project documents and frameworks, backed up with staff and budgets, and monitored and reviewed through appropriate indicators of change.

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Who is responsible for what?

The responsibility of all staff

All staff should take responsibility for:

• understanding the different roles, responsibilities, and experiences of women and men in relation to the issue being addressed
• seeking out opportunities to actively involve women as well as men in consultation and decision-making processes
• acting on women’s as well as men’s priority concerns
• seeking out ways to promote benefit for women as well as men
• being personally informed about gender issues and gender mainstreaming, and seeking out ways of promoting this understanding and commitment amongst colleagues and partner organisations
• being aware of personal attitudes and behaviour and the ways in which these affect communication with women and men and understanding of development and change.

When to call in specialist help

• ensuring women’s participation. Poor women, as well as poor men, should always be in a position to speak for themselves. It is essential to create and support opportunities to ensure that this happens. This often means working with female planners, research staff and extension agents, as well as working with representative women’s organisations, to enable poor women to express their views in a non-threatening environment and in a way that will influence the development agenda.
• gender analytical studies. Good quality gender analytical information is required for policy-making, planning and monitoring purposes. Some of this may be available from secondary sources. Conducting gender analytical research requires well-developed social and gender analytical skills, and requires appropriately trained and experienced staff or consultants.
• promoting gender equality at the community level. Processes of social change designed to promote greater equality of influence, opportunity and benefit are complex and long term. The challenge of promoting greater equality between women and men should not be underestimated, particularly in contexts of considerable inequality. Specialist skills in participatory negotiated processes of working with community groups are essential and "front line" staff require personal and professional support.
• promoting gender equality within organisations. Processes of organisational change designed to promote equal opportunities within the workplace, and to develop staff understanding of and skills in gender mainstreaming, are also complex and long term. This requires staff with commitment, perseverance and influencing skills, backed up with appropriate resources and support. Gender training requires staff or consultants with skills in adult learning and participatory training, in addition to applied and practical understanding of gender analysis and gender mainstreaming.

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Section 3

Step 1: Sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information

What you need to know, and why

Sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information is fundamental to gender mainstreaming.

Definitions

Sex disaggregated data

Sex disaggregated data is quantitative statistical information on differences and inequalities between women and men.

Sex disaggregated data might reveal, for example, quantitative differences between women and men in morbidity and mortality; differences between girls and boys in school attendance, retention and achievement; differences between men and women in access to and repayment of credit; or differences between men and women in voter registration, participation in elections and election to office.

Gender analytical information

Gender analytical information is qualitative information on gender differences and inequalities.

Gender analysis is about understanding culture, e.g. the patterns and norms of what men and women, boys and girls do and experience in relation to the issue being examined and addressed. Where patterns of gender difference and inequality are revealed in sex disaggregated data, gender analysis is the process of examining why the disparities are there, whether they are a matter for concern, and how they might be addressed.

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What you need to know

Beneficiary groups

The precise sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information needed depends on the sector and context.

There are a number of “gender analytical frameworks” designed to provide guidance on the kinds of questions that are likely to be applicable. Other analytical guidelines, such as the sustainable livelihoods framework, can also be adapted to examine gender issues. However, no set of analytical categories caters to the information needs of every sector and situation. Analytical frameworks can be very helpful but need to be used critically and with care. They should be used to inspire not to restrict thinking.

The most useful starting point in determining information needs is to ask the question:

What do we need to know in order to ensure that policy/project planning/monitoring addresses the needs of women and men (girls and boys) and benefits both women and men (girls and boys)?

Sector specialists, even those who know little about gender, will be able to brainstorm responses to this question and come up with an initial “gender analytical framework” of their own. This is a good point to refer to existing analytical frameworks i.e. do they include categories of enquiry that would be useful in your working context, but which you haven’t considered?

This manual includes an outline gender analytical framework to assist this process of brainstorming. See outline gender analytical framework: beneficiaries. For sector-specific guidelines, see the GEM website.

Development policy-making, management and implementation agencies

In recent years research has drawn attention to the ways in which development agencies reflect in their structure, procedures and organisational culture gender inequalities found in wider society. Evaluations have also consistently drawn attention to the “evaporation” of policy commitments to gender equality as a result of inadequate procedures in management and implementation agencies, and lack of commitment, understanding and skills amongst staff.

The effective management and implementation of initiatives to promote gender equality enshrined in planning and policy documents requires action to develop staff commitment, understanding and skills and to promote greater gender equality within development organisations themselves. The design of appropriate capacity-building activities requires analysis of development organisations at the planning stage.

This manual includes an outline gender analytical framework to assist this process of analysis. See outline gender analytical framework: development organisations.

When and where you collect information and data:

• it is important to draw on existing sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information
• attention should be focused on ensuring that all data collection systems (existing and newly created and including national, local, sectoral, and organisational systems) are routinely disaggregated by sex
• gender analysis should be part and parcel of the routine processes of policy and project appraisal and monitoring. Gender analysis of beneficiary groups should be integral to social appraisal and monitoring processes, and gender analysis of development organisations integral to institutional appraisal and monitoring processes
• new gender analytical studies should be conducted or commissioned to address information gaps or to update existing information.

Use of gender analytical information and sex disaggregated data

The collection of gender analytical information and sex disaggregated data is not an end in itself. It is required for certain specific tasks. These are:

• making the case for taking gender issues seriously. Advocates seeking to promote attention to gender equality need relevant, up to date, context-specific information on gender differences and inequalities and men’s and women’s different priorities and needs. Advocating gender equality on the basis of assertion and rhetoric is of limited effectiveness. Sex disaggregated data is particularly powerful for advocacy purposes, producing clear statistical evidence of gender difference and inequality.
• Policy and project planning and review. Context-specific gender analytical information and sex disaggregated data is necessary to:
  • ensure that women’s as well as men’s experiences and priorities inform the development agenda
  • devise appropriate actions to promote greater equality of influence, opportunity and benefit for women and men in beneficiary groups
  • devise appropriate actions to develop staff commitment, understanding and skills in development organisations
  • monitor the differential impact of policy and project commitments on women and men and review activities accordingly.

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Outline gender analytical framework: beneficiary groups

This outline gender analytical framework is designed to assist brainstorming on gender analytical information needs. It is an amalgamation between several commonly used gender planning frameworks and sustainable livelihoods analysis. See the GEM website for sector-specific guidelines.

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Outline gender analytical framework: development organisations

The following is a general analytical framework, to assist gender analysis of development organisations. Questions and areas of enquiry should be adapted as appropriate for the purposes of advocacy, policy/project planning or monitoring and evaluation.

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Gender budgets

“Gender budgets” or “women’s budgets”2 are analyses of government budgets to establish the differential impact of revenue raising or expenditure on women and men and on different groups of women and men. They are designed to inform public policy debate, and as such are a particularly important lobbying tool in the context of national policy frameworks

Budgets are the most important government economic policy instrument. They reflect the spending choices a government has made to achieve social and economic objectives in the context of specified revenue raising activities and predicted revenue. In order to identify the differential impact of budget expenditures on women and men, three categories of expenditure are important:

• expenditure specifically targeted to groups of women or men to meet prioritised needs
• expenditure specifically targeted to promote equal opportunities for women and men
• general or mainstream budget expenditure making goods and services available to the whole community.

Typically 99% of expenditure falls into the latter category and in this context, a budget can appear to be a gender-neutral instrument of policy. Sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information is needed to expose the differential gender impact of mainstream budget expenditure commitments.

Participants in gender budgeting exercises can include government, parliamentarians or civil society organisations, or a combination of these. A gender budget may cover expenditure and/or revenue, and may focus on selected sectors or all sectors. They might examine past budgets, past actual expenditure, estimated current budget allocations or future budgets as projected in medium term expenditure frameworks. They are conducted and used by governments to report on what they have done to meet women’s needs and promote gender equality. More commonly, they are conducted by civil society groups and provide information for parliamentarians and civil society groups to use in lobbying for greater gender equality.

A number of gender budgeting tools and approaches have been developed. Choice depends on the availability of data, the expertise of personnel, and the links between national budgets and national policy, as well as practical constraints of time and access to computers and software.

Gender budget tools

Gender-aware policy appraisal: this is the most common approach. It begins with the assumption that budgets reflect policy. Analysis involves scrutinising the explicit and implicit gender implications of national and sectoral policies, examining the ways in which priorities and choices are likely to reduce or increase gender inequality

Gender-disaggregated beneficiary assessments: this is a more participatory approach to policy analysis i.e. asking actual or potential beneficiaries the extent to which government policies/programmes match their own priorities

Gender-disaggregated public expenditure incidence analysis: this compares public expenditure for a given programme with data from household surveys to reveal the distribution of expenditure between women/men, boys/girls

Gender-disaggregated tax incidence analysis: this examines direct and indirect taxes and user fees to calculate how much tax is paid by different individuals and households

Gender-disaggregated analysis of the impact of the budget on time use: this examines the relationship between national budget and the way time is used in households. In particular, it draws attention to the ways in which the time spent by women in unpaid work is accounted for in policy analysis

Gender-aware medium term economic policy framework: these are attempts to incorporate gender into the economic models on which medium term economic frameworks are based

Gender-aware budget statement: this is an exercise in government accountability which may use any of the above tools. It requires a high degree of commitment and co-ordination throughout the public sector as ministries and departments undertake and publicise an assessment of the gender impact of their line budgets.

Adapted from Diane Elson (1997) “Tools for gender integration into macro-economic policy” in Link into Gender and Development, 2, Summer, p.13, cited in Budlender, D and Sharp, R (1998) “How to do a gender-sensitive budget analysis: contemporary research and practice”, Commonwealth Secretariat and AusAid

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Step 2: Influencing the development agenda

Gender-sensitive stakeholder analysis

In order to ensure that women’s as well as men’s needs, priorities and constraints are recognised and addressed and influence the development agenda, all processes of policy development and project design should involve:

• participatory consultation with women as well as men in beneficiary groups
• women as well as men in decision-making at all levels
• gender equality advocates (men as well as women) devising ways of opening up spaces to ensure women’s active involvement in consultation and decision-making.

This means finding ways to ensure that:

• women’s groups are actively involved in consultation and decision-making processes
• the range of women’s views and needs is adequately represented. Different women (and men) have different needs on the basis of class, ethnicity, age and family composition, and other factors. Urban, middle class women do not necessarily accurately represent the views and priorities of poor, rural women
• the usual processes of stakeholder analysis (drawing up a table of stakeholders; assessing the importance of each stakeholder and their relative power and influence; and identifying risks and assumptions that will affect project design) include:
  • women and men as separate stakeholder groups
  • where appropriate, different stakeholder groups amongst women (and men)
  • clarity regarding stakeholder groups which include both women and men
  • consultancy teams, working groups, management teams and implementation teams include women as well as men
  • gender equality advocates (in government, civil society and donor organisations) work in collaboration, thinking collectively and strategically about advocacy strategies.

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Women in decision-making: community level

Issues to address

Traditionally, women are often excluded from decision-making at the community level. A number of factors combine to bring this about. These include traditional attitudes concerning the role and status of women, and also aspects of women’s own work burden, knowledge, skills and confidence. Poor women’s confidence can be undermined by less exposure than poor men to the world outside their immediate home, and by limited language and literacy skills. Even when steps have been taken to include women in community level decision-making, too often women have been token representatives on community committees with a passive role and few real responsibilities. Problems for women can be compounded during negotiations with local authorities. Community based groups may have been able to achieve considerable levels of women’s participation, but decision-making power may lie at higher levels of the local administration, where women are not so well represented. Community efforts are often frustrated by bureaucratic delays or unwilling staff at the local/municipal government level, and women community representatives can be particularly vulnerable because of their generally lower social status.

Increasing women’s involvement in community decision-making

Gender analysis

Before taking action to involve women in community level decision-making, it is important to be fully aware of existing gender roles, structures and attitudes in relation to decision-making at the community level.

Planning to promote women’s involvement

Action to promote women’s involvement in community level decision-making should be devised on the basis of a clear understanding of existing gender roles, and on the basis of male and female community members’ perspectives and priorities.
On this basis:

• appropriate ways of strengthening women’s involvement in decision-making need to be specified in planning documents, included in implementation staff TORs (terms of reference) and supported with necessary funding
• criteria for monitoring and evaluation of women’s participation must also be established. Indicators of effectiveness should include qualitative as well as quantitative aspects of participation.

Activities to promote women’s involvement

• Practical measures to promote women’s involvement in decision-making include the following:

Community consultation processes

• practical measures are needed to ensure that project information reaches women, that they are able to attend meetings and that meetings provide a forum in which they can actively participate
• women themselves will often have insights on the best way to work around male dominated power structures
• open discussions involving men and women may facilitate women’s participation but specific measures may also be needed to overcome the deference or muting of women’s views in front of men
• particularly in large communities, it may be necessary to follow up large meetings with smaller planning groups, including key women representatives, where women’s roles, responsibilities, priorities and constraints can be elaborated in more detail
• given the limitations on poor women’s time, considerable outreach work and flexibility is required about when and where to meet. One approach has been to arrange meetings in situ at, for example, water supply sites or clinics
• working with existing women’s NGOs or community organisations is a way to involve women directly. However, such organisations tend to be monopolised by more affluent women with more free time, and may exclude poorer sections of the community
• women’s organisations are not necessarily “gender-sensitive”, in the sense that they may have limited understanding of ideas concerning gender mainstreaming and gender equality. It may be useful to take steps to strengthen the gender sensitivity of CBOs and networks.

Activities to gain the support of men

• early consultation with men, particularly community leaders, and attempts to promote positive attitudes towards women’s active participation, are important. Where women are involved in separate activities or training, the potential advantages should be explained, and/or complementary or parallel activities organised for men
• men’s negative attitudes to women’s increased involvement have often shifted once the benefits to the community, households, and women themselves have been demonstrated.

Promoting women’s active role in community level decision-making

• women’s involvement in selecting candidates is likely to result in a higher and more dynamic level of women’s participation
• the quality of women’s participation in committees, as well as the quantity, needs to be improved. For women who are unused to assuming positions of authority, considerable groundwork may be needed to develop the self-confidence and assertiveness skills necessary for dealing with village authorities. Women representatives may need special training, in leadership skills, confidence building and communication. Similar training should be offered to men to avoid alienation.

Links with local authorities

• Local women’s needs are often addressed most effectively by building gender-sensitive partnerships between community representatives and local authorities. This involves:
• supporting and training community representatives to negotiate effectively for gender-sensitive services
• training staff in municipal authorities to increase their understanding of gender issues, needs and rights, as well as their responsibility for delivering gender-aware responses
• developing activities to increase information to marginalised groups, including women, about the services and resources they can expect, e.g. service charters setting out standards of provision.

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Women in decision-making: national policy processes

World Bank PRSP gender guidelines specifically promote the need for gender-sensitive participatory consultation processes at the poverty diagnostic stage. However, no mechanism exists either within the World Bank, or within most national governments, to ensure that these guidelines are adhered to and no minimum level of consultation is stipulated in the guidelines. The level of women’s participation in national policy consultation processes in many countries is currently very low.

It is imperative for gender equality advocates within governments, donor organisations and civil society groups to push for women’s right to participate and to be heard in national policy consultation processes, and for women and gender equality advocates to participate in decision-making at all levels.

This means giving consideration to:

• supporting the capacity of civil society groups committed to gender equality (women’s groups, men’s groups and mixed groups) to engage effectively with national policy processes. It is particularly important to make budget and macro-economic processes accessible
• recognising the strength that diversity amongst women’s groups and civil society groups can bring, but balancing this with choices regarding focused advocacy on women’s rights and gender equality
• developing the capacity of government staff to understand gender equality issues and support gender-aware participatory consultation processes. Linkages between gender advocates and government officials developed during training can assist later lobbying activities
• establishing standards by which the quality of gender-aware participation can be measured.

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Working in networks and coalitions

Networking is fundamental to effective gender mainstreaming. It is professionally ineffective and personally undermining for organisations and individuals seeking to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment to work alone. In the context of developing national policy frameworks, it is essential for gender advocates within government and donor organisations to work collaboratively with each other and with civil society groups.

Types of network

Informal support networks

It is particularly valuable in the early days of trying to mainstream gender within an organisation, policy development process or project for staff trying to promote attention to gender to form an informal support network of like-minded people. People attend as individuals, not as organisational representatives. The key issue is that members choose to attend and have a reasonable relationship of trust from the outset. These informal networks provide much needed personal support in what can be a very stressful and marginalised role. They provide a supportive environment to brainstorm ideas, reflect on experiences and recover from disasters!

Formal internal networks and working parties

These are networks recognised and legitimised by the organisation or organisations involved, with people attending in their professional capacity and reporting back. They include gender working parties, gender focal point networks, and donor gender networks.

Gender working parties

A network formed when there is some degree of recognition within an organisation that gender is an issue that needs to be addressed. The aim is to involve a range of staff in developing strategies that will be effective and relevant to all aspects of the organisation’s work. Tasks might include co-ordinating the development of a gender mainstreaming policy, with individual members representing the interests of different departments; developing an appropriate gender training strategy, with individual members responsible for assessing training needs in their different departments; and co-ordinating the implementation and monitoring of a gender policy.

Focal point networks

Government ministries, in particular, frequently appoint/nominate “gender focal staff” to promote attention to gender in their own sector/department, in pursuance of policy commitments to gender mainstreaming. It is particularly beneficial to form focal staff networks, usually under the co-ordination of the national women’s machinery, to link together staff trying to promote attention to gender in different ministries and departments. These are a forum for developing strategies, building capacity and providing personal and professional support.

Donor gender networks

These bring together staff within donor organisations responsible for mainstreaming gender within their own organisations and programmes, as well as supporting women-specific initiatives. They are important to co-ordinate the work of different donors and avoid duplication; share experiences on and approaches to mainstreaming gender; share approaches to supporting the local women’s movement; and share information about local organisations and consultants.

Advocacy networks

Gender advocates lobbying development organisations either from the inside or outside to promote attention to gender equality in legislation, policies and programmes are far more effective when efforts are co-ordinated. In the context of national policy frameworks, individual staff and organisations, including donors, have limited power on their own to influence the agenda. It is essential for gender advocates within donor organisations to co-ordinate with gender focal staff within government and with civil society groups to co-ordinate activities, develop strategies and take advantage of opportunities.

Internal advocates linking with external networks

An important part of effective advocacy is for focal staff within government and development organisations to communicate with and gain the confidence and support of constituents outside the organisation. Links between gender focal staff and women’s organisations, gender equality advocates and research centres enrich the resources, knowledge and expertise available internally, broaden the input and influence of outside organisations, provide moral support to internal advocates and can increase their leverage.

External pressure groups

UNIFEM notes “we have seen time and time again that effective mainstreaming requires sustained pressure, over a long period, on governments, bilateral and multilateral agencies, the private sector, the media and other actors by women, women’s movements and their allies. Without an empowered group of women advocating for and guiding gendersensitive policies and practices, the work of mainstreaming is prey to the particular skills and interests of a changing cast of governmental, bilateral, and multilateral personnel who may or may not have a commitment to or understanding of gender mainstreaming and equality. Thus UNIFEM’s mainstreaming strategy hinges on supporting women to collectively assess their situation, express their priorities and concerns, strengthen their public voice, advocate and lobby for policy reform, and develop approaches to substantively influence societal decision-making.”

Electronic networks

There are a number of gender and development email networks. These can be a useful opportunity to share information, ideas and experiences, although clearly access is restricted to those who have the necessary hardware, infrastructure and resources.

Tips for network effectiveness

Great expectation can accompany the establishment of networks, only to find that membership trails off, little is achieved and members cease to meet. To maximise effectiveness, networks need to pay attention to the following:

• clear thought to membership: this involves thinking through what each member will contribute, and what they will gain, as well as factors concerning the overall coherence and viability of the group
• well thought out need and goal: it is important for members to reach agreement on a clear purpose and goal. This is motivating and gives a general direction to the group
• good leadership: networks work most effectively when members feel actively involved and responsible. The leader should have a strong commitment to the network goal, respect for the members and a facilitative, inclusive style
• good communication with members: this includes regular meetings, the agenda circulated in advance, and minutes circulated afterwards
• effective and efficient meetings: meetings should give a sense of progress towards the goal, provide an opportunity for members’ views to be heard and to reach consensus on decisions
• clear, realistic and agreed action plan: actions need to be agreed bearing in mind members’ resources, time availability, opportunities, skills, knowledge and influence
• concrete results: achievement is highly motivating. Modest expectations accompanied by tangible progress, are more motivating than ambitious goals with no clear strategy for bringing about tangible change

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Advocacy and Lobbying

Gender advocates

Persuading those in positions of power and authority to take gender equality and women’s empowerment seriously is key to making progress. This is the role of “gender advocates” with government, civil society and donor organisations. Gender advocates can be men or women, and individuals or organisations. They may undertake this responsibility as part of their designated role, or purely on the basis of their own motivation and choice.

Gender advocates require patience, persistence and commitment. They need the ability to think strategically and to take advantage of unexpected opportunities. They need to be able to recover from setbacks, be willing to compromise and recognise the significance of modest gains and breakthroughs. Promoting gender equality and the empowerment of women is a long-term, complex and difficult task.
Gender advocates face different opportunities and constraints in different contexts.

Government based advocates

In many cases, advocates operating within government ministries are highly constrained in their room for manoeuvre. Razavi (98) description of gender advocates describes their situation well: “supplicants trying to persuade those not convinced of the intrinsic value of gender equality, in terms least likely to generate resistance, that gender issues need to become a priority”.

Civil society based advocates

Civil society based gender advocates are often freer to express their views than those working within government. However their degree of influence and leverage over government decision-making will depend on a number of factors:

• the extent to which women’s empowerment and gender equality is accepted as a desirable goal by the government and in wider society
• the government’s history of addressing women/gender issues
• the government’s degree of dependence on civil society support (e.g. need for voter support to remain in power)
• government decision-making ideology and procedures
• the existence and capacity of internal gender advocates fighting for a similar agenda.

Donor based advocates

The majority of donor organisations have a stated commitment to the promotion of gender equality (a notable success for gender advocacy). The problem lies in translating this commitment into action. In the context of donor-funded projects, the range of stakeholders involved in planning and design is comparatively small and the donor organisation is often in a powerful position to influence the planning agenda. As a consequence, if attention to gender equality is important to the donor, and the staff involved in planning have the appropriate knowledge and skills, then measures to promote gender equality are likely to be included in the project design. The most appropriate role for gender advocates in this context is to develop appropriate gender mainstreaming knowledge and skills amongst planning staff.

In contrast, the development of national policy frameworks is a complex process of negotiation involving multiple government, donor and non-government stakeholders. Individual staff and organisations, including donors, have limited power on their own to influence the agenda. This provides a very different context for donor based gender advocates to promote attention to gender equality. It is essential for gender advocates from donor organisations, ministries, parliament and civil society groups to work in conjunction identifying strategic entry points for the promotion of gender equality. It is unsustainable, inappropriate and unnecessary for donors to promote an agenda of gender equality single-handedly. Donor based advocates should:

• promote, as far as possible, co-ordination between donors on gender equality issues
• ensure that staff from different sectors are aware of, and speak in favour of, gender equality policy commitments
• seek out and support (with funding, training and consultancy support) gender advocates within partner ministries. Development assistance can play a very important legitimising role, supporting the advocacy work of gender staff
• support civil society advocacy organisations
• participate in gender networks and agree joint strategies.

Advocacy strategies

Effective advocacy (for individuals or organisations, government, civil society or donor advocates) involves:

• identifying appropriate “entry points”. These could be:
  • international, national, sectoral or organisational policy commitments to gender equality
  • new research findings, or analyses of sex disaggregated data
  • the support of key individuals in powerful positions
  • specific events (elections, international conferences, local conferences, issues in the headlines)
  • new initiatives
  • reviews of existing initiatives
  • research funding
  • funding for training
• developing strategic alliances and recognising the need for compromise
• developing a well argued case for taking gender issues seriously, drawing on appropriate sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information
• moulding arguments into a shape that fits the goals, culture and procedures of the targeted organisation or process
• using a language that is bold and appealing to policy makers and practitioners, quite different from the complexity of academic gender analysis
• making clear, well thought through and realistic suggestions for change. In constrained circumstances, suggestions for change may have to be confined to least worst scenarios and damage control, rather than to a more ambitious concerns with the promotion of gender equality
• anticipating opposing arguments and developing reasonable responses
• recognising the importance of small incremental steps towards the long-term goal of gender equality
• revisiting strategies to take account of what has been achieved and learned as well as to assess new opportunities and changing circumstances
• recognising that gains made towards the long-term objective of gender equality cannot be taken for granted.

In individual meetings, remember to: be brief, be clear, be accurate, be persuasive, be timely, be persistent and be grateful!

Linking gender equality and poverty elimination

Gender advocates need to win allies and press their claims successfully against rival claimants. In an unsupportive context, the most effective course of action is to demonstrate positive spin-offs from gender mainstreaming, in terms that are compatible with the overall policy environment.

The current international policy focus on poverty elimination provides a relevant and conducive context for gender mainstreaming. There is a growing and compelling body of evidence which shows that women not only bear the brunt of poverty but that women’s empowerment is a central precondition for its elimination. The undoubted links between the elimination of poverty and the promotion of gender equality opens up considerable space for attention to gender issues in all aspects of mainstream policy-making and planning.

In making links between poverty and gender equality, it is important not to imply that gender inequality is caused by poverty, or that measures to address poverty will automatically address gender inequality. Progress on gender equality is dependent on political will not on the income level of the society. Some developing countries outperform much richer countries in the opportunities they afford women.

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Step 3: Action to promote gender equality

What does gender equality mean?

Gender mainstreaming is a strategy to promote the goal of gender equality and the empowerment of women.

Gender equality does not simply or necessarily mean equal numbers of men and women or boys and girls in all activities, nor does it necessarily mean treating men and women or boys and girls exactly the same.

It signifies an aspiration to work towards a society in which neither women nor men suffer from poverty in its many forms, and in which women and men are able to live equally fulfilling lives. It means recognising that men and women often have different needs and priorities, face different constraints, have different aspirations and contribute to development in different ways. It means recognising the right of women to define the objectives of development for themselves.

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Outline gender equality action framework

Choice of action to promote gender equality should be made on the basis of clear gender analytical information and sex disaggregated data, and on the basis of women’s own priorities and concerns. It is wholly inappropriate for development organisations to devise actions to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment without having gone through these two steps.

This outline gender equality action framework is designed to assist in planning discussions. In all sectors and contexts, possible action to promote gender equality broadly falls into the listed categories. Agreed actions to promote gender equality should be included in policy and planning documents, and backed up with staffing, resources and indicators of change.

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Gender in logical frameworks

The role of project frameworks/logical frameworks

In the context of projects, the project framework agreed between the donor and partner government/civil society organisation is the key document for mainstreaming gender. It fulfils many functions:

• it provides a structured framework for participatory project design discussions
• it presents in summary form the agreed key aspects of the project. It is the point at which DFID “signs off” on a project
• it is an instrument of accountability. The project management are accountable for delivering what is specified in the project framework: they are not accountable for what is not
• it provides the basis for budgeting, marking, and review/OPR (Out to Purpose Review) processes.

In the context of PRSPs and SWAPS, the donor project framework is an internal mechanism to agree and channel funds. It is not an instrument of accountability for partner governments. However, it is usual to find a logical framework format used by governments to summarise PRSP and SWAP objectives, activities, indicators and resource commitments. This is then the key document for mainstreaming gender within policy frameworks. It is the focus for planning, management, resource allocation, accountability and review.

When and if to include gender

Policy and project documentation, which is typically substantial, is important for planning, discussion and approval purposes. However, subsequent management, budgeting and review processes focus on the logical framework summary. Therefore:

• if gender issues are relevant to the policy or project, explicit references are required in the logical framework. Inclusion in social and institutional annexes or in social and institutional appraisal sections of the policy/project documents is not sufficient
• if the policy/project is concerned with making an impact on poor people’s lives, it is hard to imagine circumstances where gender would not be relevant in some way.

How and where to include gender

The extent to which gender issues are included in logical frameworks depends on the motivation, influence and knowledge of the people involved in drawing them up. In many situations, staff with the motivation to include gender equality issues lack the influence to put this into practice. In this situation, it is important to bear in mind that almost any mention of gender/women in the logical framework is better than nothing, and advocacy activities should be geared to this end. This ensures that at least some attention is paid to gender issues in processes of management, resource allocation, and monitoring, and it opens the door to increasing attention to gender issues in review processes.

However, where staff are in a position to address gender issues more systematically in the logical framework, it is useful to bear the following points in mind.

Target groups

• it should always be clear from the logical framework who the policy/project is targeting:
• this should be clear from the use of sex disaggregated indicators
• it should be clear which activities and outputs are targeted to women, which to men and which to both
• replacing general terms such as “the poor” or “poor farmers” with, where appropriate, “poor men and women” and “poor male and female farmers” makes women as well as men clearly visible and avoids misunderstanding.

Purpose and goal

the promotion of gender equality (benefit for women as well as men) should be an aspect of the purpose and goal of all development policies/projects concerned with impacting on people’s lives. This should be reflected in Indicators and, where possible, also in the wording of the purpose/goal statement. See “gender-sensitive indicators”

If benefit to men and women is part of the goal and purpose, specific activities/outputs will be required to bring this about and need to be included in the logical framework.

Outputs

it may be useful to have one output specifically concerned with targeted activities for women. However, it is important not to ghettoise women’s activities within one output with a very small claim on resources and no influence on the rest of the policy/project. Targeted outputs of this kind should complement activities to mainstream gender throughout the policy/project. Benefit for women as well as men should be considered as an aspect of each output it is principally important to include gender in output indicators and associated activities. See “gender-sensitive indicators”.

Activities

the promotion of benefit for women as well as men requires targeted activities, backed up with human and financial resources. Resource allocation is directly linked to the activity line of a logical framework. See “outline activity framework”

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Gender-sensitive indicators

What are they designed to measure?

Gender-sensitive Indicators allow measurement of benefit to women and men. Depending on the policy/project, this might include:

• the impact/effectiveness of activities targeted to address women’s or men’s practical gender needs i.e. new skills, knowledge, resources, opportunities or services in the context of their existing gender roles
• the impact/effectiveness of activities designed to increase gender equality of opportunity, influence or benefit. e.g. targeted actions to increase women’s role in decision-making; opening up new opportunities for women/men in non-traditional skill areas
• the impact/effectiveness of activities designed to develop gender awareness and skills amongst policy-making, management and implementation staff
• the impact/effectiveness of activities to promote greater gender equality within the staffing and organisational culture of development organisations e.g. the impact of affirmative action policies.

There is no standard or agreed-upon method for measuring women’s empowerment. Aspects of empowerment can be reflected in numbers (such as an increase in numbers of women in positions of power), but above all, empowerment concerns women’s perceptions of their own lives and experiences. To measure qualitative aspects of empowerment, it is important that it is clearly defined. Most definitions stress two main areas:

• a personal change in consciousness involving a movement towards control, self-confidence and the right to make decisions and determine choices
• organisation aimed at social and political change.

The greater the degree of existing gender inequality, the more subtle changes are likely to be. It is important in this context for indicators to recognise the significance of modest gains and breakthroughs.

How do they measure?

Gender-sensitive indicators need to capture quantitative and qualitative aspects of change

Quantitative indicators

Quantitative indicators refer to the numbers and percentages of women and men or organisations involved in or affected by any particular group or activity. Quantitative indicators draw on the sex disaggregated data systems and records that have been examined during processes of policy or project planning. The availability of quantitative baseline data means that indicators usually include some element of target setting. For example:

• women form at least 33% of water committee members by the end of Year 2
• at least 50% of network members have developed a gender policy by the end of Year 3
• equality in girls and boys access to primary education by 2005
• 25% increase in number of female police officers by 2005, from a baseline of x%.

Monitoring information should be available through routine data systems and records.

Qualitative indicators

Qualitative information refers to perceptions and experiences. Qualitative information is vitally important. It is not enough to know that women are participating in an activity: the quality of their participation and experience, whether in community level meetings, primary school classes or as users of public services, is all-important.

Qualitative indicators (as well as quantitative indicators relating to visible change at the community level) should be developed in conjunction with beneficiary groups. In project documents it is legitimate to use in a phrase like “quantitative and qualitative indicators to be developed with beneficiary groups in first six months of the project”. This creates the space to develop indicators in conjunction with beneficiary groups once they have fully understood the nature of the project. (What changes would they like to see? What will the change look like? How can it be measured?). This process should take place using qualitative methods such as focus group discussions and informal interviews.

It is only possible to set targets for qualitative change if baseline data is available. This requires baseline surveys: it is highly unlikely that appropriate baseline data will be available from secondary sources. Where baseline data is available on experiences and perceptions, targets for qualitative change can be set. For example:

• at least 50% of women participating in water committees report active involvement in management and decision-making by the end of Year 2 (from a baseline of 10% at the start of the project)
• at least 70% of women respond positively to evaluation of police handling of their case in targeted police stations by the end of Year 3 (from a baseline of 5% average at the start of the project).

Where baseline data is not available, or is not easily aggregated into numbers and percentages, it is necessary to resort to general statements of improvement. For example:

• significant improvement in staff knowledge, skills and attitudes on mainstreaming gender equality in participating organisations by the end of Year 3 (where each organisation starts with markedly different levels)
• significant increase in quantity and improvement in quality of media reporting on gender violence.

Information on qualitative indicators should be collected through evaluation surveys. Depending on the indicator, these might be questionnaire surveys reviewing perceptions and experiences of agreed indicators, or participatory methods such as focus group discussions and case studies.

PIMs marker on removal of gender discrimination

Difference from WID marker

The PIMs (Policy Information Makers) marking system is used for DFID internal monitoring processes. The “removal of gender discrimination marker” has replaced a previous WID marker. The focus of marking is now on gender equality as an objective, rather than women as a target group.

Categorising projects

All projects should be categorised as having the removal of gender discrimination as a:

• principal project objective
• significant project objective, or
• non-targeted.

A principal score should be given to projects where the removal of gender discrimination (or the promotion of gender equality) is the whole purpose of the project, that is, targeted projects working with men, women, boys or girls wholly designed to tackle elements of gender inequality or discrimination. For example, support to legal literacy for women; support to male networks against domestic violence; a programme of staff training and support to develop knowledge and skills in mainstreaming gender equality.

A significant score should be given to projects where the removal or gender discrimination (or the promotion of gender equality) is an integral part of the purpose of the project, e.g. projects where gender equality is mainstreamed. These include projects concerned with promoting equitable access to services such as health, education and policing; projects concerned with promoting equitable benefit from new resources and opportunities.

A non-targeted score should be given to projects which fit in neither of the above categories.

Criteria for eligibility checklist

Categorising projects with a principal score for the removal of gender discrimination should in most circumstances be a fairly clear-cut decision.

Categorising projects with a significant score is slightly more complex. The following official checklist is designed to assist.

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PIMs marker on removal of gender discrimination checklist

To achieve a significant score for “removal of gender discrimination”, projects should meet the following criteria:

• equality between women and men is explicitly promoted in activity documentation (i.e. the project explicitly aims to promote benefit for women as well as men)
• gender analysis has been carried out either separately or as an integral part of standard procedures (i.e. gender analytical information should be included, at least, in the social annex and the social appraisal section of the project memorandum)
• gender analysis has been incorporated into activity design such that the activity meets a number (at least 4) of the following criteria:
  • gender-sensitive strategies and implementation plans are incorporated and reflected in the activity budget
  • specific means have been designed to help overcome identified barriers to women’s full participation in the activity
  • specific means have been included to help ensure equitable control by women and men over activity output
  • gender-sensitive indicators including impact indicators have been or will be developed for monitoring and evaluation
  • gender skills are used in design and will be used in monitoring and evaluation
  • gender-sensitive consultation is carried out at all levels and stages (i.e. women as well as men have participated in project design and will continue to be involved in implementation and management)

Categorising policy frameworks

Marking is currently done on the basis of project frameworks. Given the weak link between the donor project framework and the focus and development of partner government policy frameworks, it is not yet clear how the internal marking system will apply to PRSPs and SWAPS.

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Step 4: Organisational capacity building/change

“Policy evaporation”

What is policy evaporation?

Since the early 1990s, many governments, donor organisations and NGOs have taken significant steps to mainstream attention to gender equality in their work. Repeatedly and consistently, evaluations of gender mainstreaming have found that policy commitments to gender equality “evaporate” in planning and implementation processes, with the result that impact on women’s and men’s lives is very limited. The following findings are typical:

• there is a lack of reliable systems and procedures in place; for example, attention to gender equality is not systematic in policy-making, planning, implementation and evaluation
• high level commitments made by governments are often not reflected in sectoral policies
• there is a general lack of understanding on what mainstreaming entails
• there remains a tendency to view women as a sector, and not address gender equality in standard processes of sectoral analysis and planning
• gender equality is not systematically included in the TORs of staff and consultants
• gender-awareness amongst staff is not necessarily easily translated in policy and planning initiatives: there is a need for tools
• mainstreaming gender equality is often reduced to a women’s component in projects that has a very small claim on resources
• concern for gender equality can be seen as imposed by donor agencies, leading to lip service from partner agencies.

Why does it happen?

The extent to which gender equality policy commitments will be formulated and then effectively implemented depends on the understanding, skills and commitment of staff in policy-making, planning and implementation roles.

Most development organisations in the north and south have not yet built significant staff capacity in gender mainstreaming. As a result, only a small minority of staff have the level of understanding, skills and commitment to act effectively and consistently in line with gender equality policy commitments. Far more staff, whilst sympathetic to the issues, lack confidence, understanding or skills. There is additionally a proportion of staff in development organisations in the north and south hostile to the notion of gender equality. Staff responsible for promoting attention to gender issues are frequently under-resourced. Too often, they lack the time, resources, skills and positioning to undertake their role effectively.

Implications

It is unrealistic to expect that commitments to the promotion of gender equality, expressed in policy and planning documents, will be effectively implemented without significant resources being devoted to developing staff commitment, understanding and skills. This is a long-term process of organisational change with political and technical dimensions.

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Organisational capacity building framework

Activities to develop staff understanding and skills in gender mainstreaming should be developed on the basis of a clear understanding of existing levels of knowledge. This assessment should be part of the process of institutional appraisal. See outline gender analytical framework: development organisations.

Staff with designated responsibility for mainstreaming gender and building staff capacity will almost always be necessary. Their “entry points” to capacity-building and opportunities to promote attention to gender will vary in different organisations and plans should allow them a degree of flexibility.

Capacity-building initiatives should be included in policy documents and project plans, backed up with staffing and resources, and measured with appropriate indicators of change.

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Gender focal staff

Evaluations of gender mainstreaming repeatedly and consistently conclude that effective gender mainstreaming in any context requires staff (not consultants), variously referred to as gender focal persons/change agents/gender “entrepreneurs”/gender advocates, to take responsibility for spearheading, supporting and sustaining gender work. The role of these staff is not to take full personal responsibility for gender work, but to act as catalysts supporting and promoting gender-related skills and approaches amongst professional colleagues. The evidence is overwhelming that unless there are staff with designated responsibility, responsibility for gender equality all too easily becomes “mainstreamed” out of existence.

The role of gender focal staff

The role of staff with responsibility for promoting gender mainstreaming involves:

• thinking strategically about where efforts and available resources should be focused
• identifying and taking advantage of opportunities and “entry points” to mainstream gender
• seeking out allies (internally and externally)
• mobilising resources
• providing convincing justifications for the relevance of gender mainstreaming to the organisation and its activities
• facilitating the development and monitoring of gender policy and action plans
• developing and monitoring systems and procedures for mainstreaming gender
• developing and supporting gender mainstreaming skills, knowledge and commitment with professional colleagues and partners i.e. through training, guidelines and support.

Common constraints

The effectiveness of gender focal points, particularly those based in sectoral and regional ministries and project implementation teams, has often proved disappointing, at least partly because expectations of what they might achieve can be unrealistically high. Gender focal points commonly face the following constraints:

• lack of clarity about their roles and responsibilities
• lack of management support
• no additional time/resources allocated to their gender focal point role
• women staff members selected as focal points on the basis of their sex rather than their commitment to the issues
• relatively junior staff members selected as focal points but lacking the authority and seniority to undertake this role effectively. The potential for introducing change from below in an organisation accustomed to hierarchical top down forms of decision-making is inevitably limited
• huge demands on their personal and professional initiative and resilience
• many existing gender analysis methodologies and training packages are oriented to data gathering/analysis at the community/project level. A lot of this is not directly relevant to gender focal points operating at a policy level.

Promoting effectiveness

Positive focal point experiences, associated with promoting tangible change and sustaining momentum, are strongly related to supportive management, scope and resources for developing and implementing policy and activities, and adequate support. Donors have an important role to play in facilitating the effectiveness of gender focal points both in partner organisations and in project implementation teams.

• focal point TORs: terms of reference for the gender focal point should be clearly spelt out, and, if appropriate, developed in conjunction with senior managers and gender focal points themselves. TORs should realistically bear in mind the time and resources that will be available to individual focal points, and confirm the role of the gender focal point as a catalyst
• capacity-building: this could include training (in gender mainstreaming and advocacy skills), mentoring, links to professional networks, participation in workshops
• professional and personal support: through back-stopping support and involvement in networks.

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Gender policies

Introduction

An organisational mission statement/policy is a useful starting point for gender mainstreaming. Once gender equality is being effectively addressed in mainstream policy documents, a specific and separate gender mainstreaming policy may no longer be necessary.

Content

A gender mainstreaming policy usually includes:

Background information

problem/situation analysis, focusing on beneficiary groups. What is the evidence for gender inequality? Why is it a problem? Relate this to your own organisational goals. Use appropriate sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information what is being done (generally) to address the issue of gender inequality. Existing/previous government/ NGO initiatives and approaches. Focus on:

• achievements
• challenges
• lessons learned
• focus on own organisation
• history in addressing the issue of gender inequality
• current work and responsibilities
• achievements/challenges/lessons learned.
• ways forward.

Policy commitments

• succinct statement of policy rationale (a statement of organisational vision and mission in relation to gender equality. Statements of principle and belief including words like “we believe” or “we recognise”). For example:

“We believe that women and girls are over-represented amongst the poor, marginalised and oppressed, as a result of the unequal distribution of power and resources between women and men in all societies.”

• succinct statement of policy commitments in relation to specified areas of work (statements of action including words like “we will”. It is possible and quite helpful to use a logical framework format for this). For example:

“We will provide appropriate training and support to all staff to ensure they have adequate awareness, knowledge and skills with which to concretely address gender issues in their work.”

Strategy

A strategy is an action plan to put policy commitments into practice. In relation to all policy commitments, it is important to specify the following:

• activities
• indicators
• time frame
• designated responsibility
• budget.

Lessons learned

Policy evaporation

All too often, gender mainstreaming policies “evaporate” before implementation, and remain paper commitments only. Policies must include strategies/action plans with clear procedures and targets as well as designated roles and responsibilities for promotion, implementation, and monitoring. These must be based on a clear and realistic analysis and understanding of the organisation/department including its decision-making structures, incentive systems, planning routines and history with respect to gender equality.

Focus on process and product

The value of a gender mainstreaming policy lies at least as much in its formulation as in its existence. The formulation of a mainstreaming policy is a golden opportunity to involve as many staff and, where appropriate, stakeholders external to the organisation as possible. This process promotes widespread “ownership” of the policy; enhances understanding and commitment to gender equality issues; ensures that the policy “fits” with the organisational culture, structures and procedures; and substantially increases the chance that the policy will be implemented. In this context:

• gender policies from other similar organisations can be used for ideas and inspiration, but should never be copied or used as blueprints
• external consultants may have a useful role to play in facilitating a consultation and policy development process, but should never be recruited to write a mainstreaming policy.

Practice what you preach

Gender equality in the workplace, and gender equality in-service delivery, are inextricably linked. Agency credibility in presenting a gender equality policy relating to service delivery is assisted if the policy is reflected in or includes measures to promote gender equality in internal staffing and practice.

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Gender Training

What is gender training?

In-service gender training emerged in the mid 1980s to “teach” development policy makers, planners and implementation staff to see and take account of the differential impact of development interventions on men and women. This kind of gender training commonly involves:

• raising participants’ awareness of the different and unequal roles and responsibilities of women and men in any particular context
• looking at ways that development interventions affect, and are affected by, differences and inequalities between women and men
• equipping participants with knowledge and skills to understand gender differences and inequalities in the context of their work, and to plan and implement policies, programmes and projects to promote gender equality.

It has been, and remains, quite common for development agencies and governments to develop short (often one or two day) gender-awareness planning courses designed to be applicable to all staff within the organisation. More recently, many development agencies are moving away from this “one size fits all” approach to gender training onto a more tailored approach.

“Best practice” in gender training: the context

Gender training is most effective when used as part of a broader strategy for influencing the climate of opinion within an organisation for promoting gender equitable practice. Equally, the importance attached to gender training by the organisation as a whole influences how seriously training is taken by course participants. Participants who expect some sort of follow up activity, and whose supervisors support and promote gender equitable practice, are more likely to transfer what they have learned to their working practice.

Activities complementary to gender training will vary with circumstance. Part of the role of staff with responsibility for promoting attention to gender equality is to identify appropriate entry points and opportunities. Possibilities might include:

• follow up discussion and feedback workshops
• participatory gender policy development with clear, measurable and achievable objectives
• ensuring staff have back-up access to gender expertise and to professional support
• inclusion of attention to gender equality issues in personnel appraisals
• forming internal gender networks and committees
• working with external advisory/consultative groups
• establishing earmarked funds for pilot initiatives
• activities to promote management support for gender mainstreaming
• active monitoring of gender policy implementation

“Best practice” in gender training: the content

The GEM website includes information on how to go about planning a tailored gender training course and suggestions for gender training exercises. It is important to bear in mind in all contexts that gender training works most effectively when:

It is learner centred

• all training should be based on an analysis of the participants and their needs. The more homogenous the group of participants, the more the training can be tailored to their specific needs, the more effective it will be

it uses participatory methods

• effective training uses participatory methods such as case studies, brainstorming, and problem solving to allow participants to actively engage with the subject matter, and learn by doing. Choice of methods will depend on the topic, the group, the trainer and practical factors. It is important to use country, culturally and sectorally specific case material directly relevant to the circumstances in which participants live and work. The participants’ own policies, projects, experiences, observations and deliberations should be the principal materials for discussion

it introduces skills as well as awareness

• effective training is based on an understanding of the participants own job responsibilities, an understanding of where they fit in their organisational structure and an understanding of their organisational systems and procedures. It should help participants to identify and discuss their own opportunities and constraints to develop a gender equality perspective, and encourage the development (and follow up) of personal action plans

the trainer has credibility with the participants

• the trainer needs to have knowledge, understanding and status appropriate to the group. In all circumstances trainers need to adopt a non-threatening approach allowing discussion and exploration of different viewpoints. It is often best for external consultants to work with internal gender staff in order to ensure the relevance of the training to the organisation

training is followed up

• competence development is a process not an event. Training needs to be followed up with discussion workshops, more tailored training and/or on-the-job support.

Pitfalls in gender training

The above conclusions on “best practice” in the context and content of gender training are well rehearsed, but all too often gender training fails to reach these standards. Whilst good gender training can promote a more positive climate of opinion to facilitate gender equitable work, poor gender training not only fails to promote gender equitable practice, it can provoke a backlash to hard-won progress. It can promote opposition to participation in any further gender training and/or an inappropriate sense of having “done gender”. Resistance is part of the territory of gender training, and will be encountered by good gender trainers in good gender training courses, as well as by bad gender trainers in bad gender training courses. However, gender trainers bear responsibility for predicting and managing resistance constructively, and this requires their explicit attention to all of the above points on best practice in gender training content. Ineffective gender tr